Optimistic rollups
Optimistic rollups publish state claims subject to challenges.
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Research articles and reference entries are published in English. Navigation is available in seven languages.
Research articles and reference entries are published in English. Navigation is available in seven languages.
Optimistic rollups: claims, challenges and the exit route
The security argument depends on what can be challenged and who can actually submit the challenge.
Oracle freshness: a valid number can still be unusable
Price source, update conditions and failure handling belong in the same review.
Oracle override power
An administrator or small signer set can replace the price that drives credit and liquidation.
Oracle staleness
A correctly signed price can be too old for the market being settled.
Oracles: which price controls the contract?
A price feed has sources, update conditions and failure modes.
OTC escrow impersonation
A supposed neutral escrow is controlled by a participant or accomplice.
Overcollateralised debt positions
A borrower locks assets worth more than debt under protocol valuations.
Paid promotion: preserve the incentive trail
A public post and a private allocation can tell different parts of the story.
Paid promotion: what the audience needs to know
Payment, token exposure and the presentation of the message all affect how an endorsement is understood.
Password storage: why hashing and encryption serve different jobs
A login service usually needs to verify a password, not recover its original text.
Peer-to-peer payment reversals
A counterparty buys irreversible crypto with reversible fiat.
Permanent delegates: a control the holder cannot revoke
Mint-level authority changes what holding a token actually means.
Permit phishing
An offchain signature authorises a token allowance without an immediate gas payment.
Permit2: token approval and downstream signatures are separate permissions
Review the token's allowance to Permit2 and the spender authority granted through Permit2.
Perpetual funding: a transfer between position holders
Funding helps align a perpetual contract with its reference market, but it also changes the cost of holding a trade.
Perpetual futures
A perpetual contract tracks an asset without expiry.
PlusToken investment scheme
PlusToken marketed a wallet and investment return while authorities described a large pyramid scheme.
PnL screenshots without cash reconciliation
A screenshot omits deposits, withdrawals, leverage, open losses and failed wallets.
PnL screenshots: reconcile the money before admiring the return
Deposits, unsold inventory and fees can radically change the interpretation.
PnL screenshots: the missing denominator
A displayed winner is not a complete trading record.
Poisoned software dependencies
A familiar or mistyped package adds key theft or transaction manipulation to a build.
Political token conflicts
An official or close family receives token revenue while holding policy influence.
Poly Network cross-chain exploit
Poly Network suffered a major cross-chain exploit in 2021 and later recovered much of the transferred value.
Polygon PoS: checkpoints are not the whole security model
Examine the specific network instead of treating every Polygon product as interchangeable.
Private keys and control
A private key creates signatures accepted under an account or script's rules.
Private whitelist sales
Selected accounts can trade while the public is blocked or taxed.
Proof of stake: agreement has rules, participants and penalties
Validator activity explains chain agreement, not the honesty of every application.
Proof-of-stake validators
Validators attest to state under stake-based rules.
Proof-of-work mining
Miners propose blocks whose hashes satisfy a target while nodes validate every rule.