Foundations
Cryptographic timestamp chains
Haber and Stornetta describe techniques for time-stamping digital documents, an important precursor to later chained records.
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Timeline
Events, upgrades and cases, in date order. Each entry links to an article and its source. Dates describe the listed event, not the start of every related dispute.
Research articles and reference entries are published in English. Navigation is available in seven languages.
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1991
1997
Foundations
Hashcash proposal
Adam Back proposes Hashcash, a proof-of-work system later referenced in Bitcoin's design.
1998
Foundations
b-money proposal
Wei Dai describes an electronic cash proposal using a distributed database and pseudonymous participants.
2004
Foundations
Reusable proof of work
Hal Finney develops RPOW, combining proof-of-work tokens with a trusted execution component.
2008
Foundations
Bitcoin white paper
Satoshi Nakamoto describes peer-to-peer electronic cash and a proof-of-work solution to double spending.
2009
Foundations
Bitcoin genesis block
Bitcoin's first block marks the beginning of its chain history.
Read the articleBitcoin developer guide: block chain and consensus
Bitcoin
First recorded Bitcoin transfer
Satoshi Nakamoto sends bitcoin to Hal Finney in an early network transaction.
2010
Bitcoin
Bitcoin Pizza Day
A forum-arranged purchase exchanges 10,000 BTC for 2 pizzas, becoming an early price and payment milestone.
2011
Custody
Mt. Gox account compromise disrupts trading
An account compromise and abnormal trading expose how a centralised venue can fail independently of Bitcoin.
Networks
Litecoin launches
Litecoin adapts Bitcoin's design with different hashing and timing parameters.
2012
Businesses
Coinbase is founded
Coinbase begins as a hosted service for buying and holding bitcoin, part of the expansion of custodial access.
Protocol
First Bitcoin halving
The block subsidy falls from 50 to 25 BTC at height 210,000.
Read the articleBitcoin Core: subsidy and block validation implementation
2013
Networks
XRP Ledger consensus era
The XRP Ledger's early history develops around validators and issued assets rather than proof-of-work mining.
Culture
Dogecoin launches
Dogecoin turns an internet meme into a proof-of-work cryptocurrency and later a major speculation culture.
2014
Networks
Ethereum announced publicly
Ethereum's programmable blockchain design is introduced before the 2015 Frontier launch.
Read the articleEthereum Foundation: Frontier launch, 30 July 2015
Custody
Mt. Gox stops withdrawals and fails
The exchange's collapse leaves customers facing a lengthy insolvency and rehabilitation process.
Read the articleMt. Gox trustee: official rehabilitation notices
Regulation
New York BitLicense proposal
New York proposes a licensing framework for virtual currency businesses, starting a major US state regulatory model.
Stablecoins
Tether's predecessor launches
Realcoin, later renamed Tether, introduces a dollar-linked token model whose reserve representations later draw enforcement scrutiny.
Read the articleCFTC: Tether and Bitfinex orders, 15 October 2021
2015
Stablecoins
Maker project begins
Maker's development leads toward overcollateralised DAI and onchain liquidation mechanics.
Protocol
Ethereum Frontier launches
Ethereum's first live release introduces its programmable execution environment.
Read the articleEthereum Foundation: Frontier launch, 30 July 2015
2016
Security
The DAO exploit
The incident leads to competing proposals for handling the affected funds.
Read the articleSEC: The DAO investigative report, 25 July 2017
Security
The DAO is exploited
An execution path drains value from The DAO and forces Ethereum participants to debate intervention.
Read the articleSEC: The DAO investigative report, 25 July 2017
Protocol
Second Bitcoin halving
The subsidy falls from 25 to 12.5 BTC at height 420,000.
Read the articleBitcoin Core: subsidy and block validation implementation
Protocol
Ethereum DAO fork
Ethereum's fork changes state following The DAO incident; the original chain continues separately.
Security
Bitfinex theft
The theft becomes the underlying offence in a later US money-laundering prosecution.
Read the articleUS DOJ: Bitfinex laundering sentence, 14 November 2024
Privacy
Zcash launches
Zcash launches with shielded transaction technology alongside transparent transaction modes.
2017
Markets
ICO fundraising peaks
Token sales expand rapidly, often financing future products before usable networks exist.
Enforcement
SEC publishes The DAO report
The report examines when token offerings fall within securities law.
Read the articleSEC: The DAO investigative report, 25 July 2017
Protocol
SegWit activates on Bitcoin
Witness commitments and new transaction-weight rules change Bitcoin transaction accounting.
Regulation
China restricts ICOs and exchange activity
Chinese authorities announce restrictions that reshape exchange access and mining geography over later years.
Applications
CryptoKitties congestion
A popular NFT application demonstrates how 1 application can consume meaningful shared-chain capacity.
2018
Custody
Coincheck reports NEM theft
The Japanese exchange reports a large theft from its custody environment.
Scams
BitConnect platform collapses
BitConnect's lending programme ends amid regulatory action and later criminal allegations.
Read the articleUS DOJ: BitConnect founder indictment, 25 February 2022
Promotions
Centra Tech promotion cases develop
US authorities pursue conduct around the Centra ICO, including later promoter settlements.
Read the articleSEC: Floyd Mayweather and DJ Khaled settlements, 29 November 2018
Protocol
LND mainnet beta
Lightning Labs announces its beta, an early deployment milestone for payment channels.
Read the articleLightning Labs: first lnd mainnet beta, 15 March 2018
Markets
Uniswap launches
An automated exchange built around liquidity pools goes live on Ethereum.
Enforcement
Mayweather and Khaled promotion settlements
SEC orders address undisclosed payments for promoting ICO investments.
Read the articleSEC: Floyd Mayweather and DJ Khaled settlements, 29 November 2018
2019
Custody
Cryptopia breach
Cryptopia reports a security breach before entering liquidation later in 2019.
Read the articleGrant Thornton New Zealand: Cryptopia updates
Custody
QuadrigaCX creditor protection
QuadrigaCX enters court proceedings while customer asset access and records remain unresolved.
Read the articleOntario Securities Commission: QuadrigaCX report
Networks
Facebook announces Libra
The proposed global stablecoin project triggers policy resistance and is later reworked and abandoned.
Scams
PlusToken withdrawal failures emerge
PlusToken users lose access as authorities and analysts trace a large recruitment-driven crypto scheme.
2020
Networks
Solana mainnet beta begins
Solana's mainnet beta starts, establishing its account and programme execution model.
Protocol
Third Bitcoin halving
The subsidy falls from 12.5 to 6.25 BTC at height 630,000.
Read the articleBitcoin Core: subsidy and block validation implementation
Markets
COMP distribution begins
Compound's governance-token incentives help accelerate liquidity-mining activity.
Read the articleCoinDesk: COMP distribution and governance changes, 30 June 2020
Scams
AirBit Club operators charged
US criminal proceedings expose claims of mining and trading returns unsupported by the real money flow.
Read the articleDOJ: National Cryptocurrency Enforcement Team archive
Markets
SushiSwap vampire mining
Liquidity incentives move assets from Uniswap into SushiSwap and show how token rewards can redirect protocol usage.
Protocol
Ethereum Beacon Chain launches
Proof-of-stake consensus begins operating before its later merger with Ethereum execution.
2021
Culture
NFT market expands
NFT trading and profile-picture collections turn token ownership into a mass-market identity and speculation product.
Markets
Beeple auction reaches $69.3 million
Christie's sale becomes a prominent milestone in the NFT market's expansion.
Businesses
Coinbase direct listing
A major US crypto exchange lists shares on Nasdaq, marking deeper contact with public equity markets.
Markets
Meme-coin cycle accelerates
Dogecoin and newer tokens demonstrate how social distribution can overwhelm conventional valuation narratives.
Security
Poly Network exploit
A privileged cross-chain path is exploited; much of the transferred value is later returned.
Protocol
London upgrade
EIP-1559 introduces a burned base fee and new transaction fee settings.
Enforcement
CFTC Tether and Bitfinex orders
The orders address historical reserve representations and retail commodity transactions.
Read the articleCFTC: Tether and Bitfinex orders, 15 October 2021
Protocol
Taproot activates
Bitcoin adds Schnorr signatures and Taproot spending rules at height 709,632.
Security
BadgerDAO frontend compromise
Users approve hostile transactions delivered through compromised web infrastructure.
2022
Security
Wormhole exploit
A verification failure allows unbacked wrapped ETH to be minted on Solana.
Enforcement
BlockFi lending settlement
BlockFi agrees to $100 million in combined SEC and state penalties.
Read the articleSEC: BlockFi lending-product settlement, 14 February 2022
Enforcement
BitConnect founder indicted
US prosecutors allege a global investment-fraud scheme; an indictment is an allegation.
Read the articleUS DOJ: BitConnect founder indictment, 25 February 2022
Security
Ronin bridge theft
A bridge compromise is later attributed by the FBI to North Korean actors.
Governance
Beanstalk flash-loan governance attack
Borrowed voting power is used to approve treasury-draining execution in 1 transaction.
Markets
UST loses its peg
Terra's redemption mechanism and market confidence break down.
Read the articleSEC: Terraform / Kwon civil fraud verdict and settlement, 13 June 2024
Credit
Three Arrows Capital defaults
Leveraged fund exposures spread losses into lenders and customer-facing platforms.
Security
Harmony Horizon bridge drained
Compromised validator control enables unauthorised bridge withdrawals.
Custody
Celsius pauses customer withdrawals
Customers lose access to assets before the lender enters bankruptcy.
Credit
Voyager enters bankruptcy
Voyager's customer product fails after counterparty lending exposure becomes uncollectable.
Read the articleFTC: Voyager Digital settlement and Stephen Ehrlich suit
Custody
Celsius files for bankruptcy
The filing follows its withdrawal freeze.
Security
Nomad bridge copycat drain
A trusted-root error makes a withdrawal pattern reproducible by many addresses.
Protocol
The Merge
Ethereum's execution layer moves to Beacon Chain proof-of-stake consensus.
Read the articleEthereum Foundation: mainnet Merge announcement
Markets
Mango Markets manipulation
Trades increase collateral value before assets are borrowed from the platform.
Read the articleCFTC: digital-asset derivatives enforcement record
Enforcement
Kim Kardashian promotion settlement
The SEC addresses an undisclosed $250,000 payment for an EthereumMax promotion.
Read the articleSEC: Kim Kardashian EthereumMax settlement, 3 October 2022
Custody
FTX collapses
Withdrawal pressure reveals a customer-asset shortfall and intertwined exposure to Alameda.
Read the articleUS DOJ: Samuel Bankman-Fried sentencing, 28 March 2024
Custody
Genesis suspends Earn withdrawals
Gemini Earn customers are affected by their lending exposure to Genesis.
Read the articleSEC: Genesis and Gemini Earn complaint, 12 January 2023
Custody
FTX and Alameda records unravel
The collapse reveals privileged affiliate access and a customer-asset shortfall.
Read the articleSEC: FTX investor-fraud complaint, 13 December 2022
Scams
IcomTech prosecutions advance
US cases describe mining and trading claims used to support a Ponzi scheme.
Read the articleDOJ: National Cryptocurrency Enforcement Team archive
Enforcement
SEC files its Bankman-Fried complaint
The complaint describes alleged customer-fund diversion and special treatment for Alameda.
Read the articleSEC: FTX investor-fraud complaint, 13 December 2022
2023
Enforcement
SEC charges Genesis and Gemini
The complaint concerns the offer and sale of the Gemini Earn lending product.
Read the articleSEC: Genesis and Gemini Earn complaint, 12 January 2023
Scams
Forsage founders indicted
US authorities pursue founders of the smart-contract recruitment scheme.
Read the articleSEC: charges concerning Forsage, 1 August 2022
Markets
USDC depegs during the SVB crisis
Disclosure of reserve cash at Silicon Valley Bank prompts concern about access to backing.
Read the articleInvestopedia: USDC and Silicon Valley Bank, March 2023
Policy
USDC loses its peg temporarily
Silicon Valley Bank exposure creates uncertainty over access to part of USDC reserves.
Promotions
TRX and BTT celebrity cases announced
The SEC files its complaint and announces settlements with several promoters.
Read the articleSEC: TRX / BTT allegations and celebrity settlements, 22 March 2023
Security
Euler exploit
A lending-accounting path is exploited using atomic liquidity and complex position changes.
Policy
US authorities announce depositor protection
The announcement covers depositors at Silicon Valley Bank and Signature Bank.
Read the articleTreasury, Federal Reserve and FDIC: joint statement, 12 March 2023
Enforcement
TRX and BTT promotion cases
The SEC announces charges and celebrity settlements concerning promotion and other alleged conduct.
Read the articleSEC: TRX / BTT allegations and celebrity settlements, 22 March 2023
Protocol
Shapella upgrade
Ethereum enables validator withdrawals, subject to its withdrawal rules.
Security
Curve pools affected by compiler issue
Specific pools using vulnerable Vyper versions suffer reentrancy-related losses.
Bridges
Multichain abnormal transfers
Large movements and operational silence create uncertainty about control of bridge assets.
Enforcement
OneCoin co-founder sentenced
Karl Sebastian Greenwood receives a 20-year prison sentence.
Read the articleUS DOJ: OneCoin co-founder Greenwood sentenced, 12 September 2023
Credit
FTC announces Voyager settlement and suit
The FTC permanently bans Voyager from handling consumer assets and sues former CEO Stephen Ehrlich.
Read the articleFTC: Voyager Digital settlement and Stephen Ehrlich suit
Security
KyberSwap Elastic exploit
Complex concentrated-liquidity accounting is manipulated across affected pools.
Tokens
SafeMoon executives charged
US criminal and civil actions challenge claims concerning liquidity and its control.
Read the articleReuters: SafeMoon executives charged, 1 November 2023
Enforcement
Binance and CZ guilty pleas
The resolutions establish specified compliance offences, not every allegation ever made about the exchange.
Read the articleUS DOJ: Binance and Zhao guilty pleas, 21 November 2023
2024
Scams
HyperFund charges announced
US authorities allege a large recruitment-driven investment scheme operating under several names.
Read the articleDOJ: National Cryptocurrency Enforcement Team archive
Policy
US spot Bitcoin ETP approvals
The SEC approves exchange rule changes permitting the products' listing and trading.
Read the articleSEC: spot Bitcoin ETP approval statement, 10 January 2024
Custody
FTX founder sentenced
Sam Bankman-Fried receives a 25-year sentence after conviction on 7 counts.
Read the articleUS DOJ: Samuel Bankman-Fried sentencing, 28 March 2024
Protocol
Dencun upgrade
Ethereum introduces blobs and a separate data fee market through EIP-4844.
Enforcement
Bankman-Fried sentenced
A US court imposes a 25-year prison sentence following his fraud conviction.
Read the articleUS DOJ: Samuel Bankman-Fried sentencing, 28 March 2024
Bitcoin
Runes activates at the halving
A fungible-token protocol begins at Bitcoin block 840,000, increasing competition for block space.
Bitcoin
Fourth Bitcoin halving
The block subsidy falls from 6.25 to 3.125 BTC at height 840,000.
Read the articleBitcoin Core: subsidy and block validation implementation
Protocol
Fourth Bitcoin halving
The subsidy falls from 6.25 to 3.125 BTC at height 840,000.
Read the articleBitcoin Core: subsidy and block validation implementation
Enforcement
Terraform settlement announced
The SEC announces a settlement following the civil fraud verdict.
Read the articleSEC: Terraform / Kwon civil fraud verdict and settlement, 13 June 2024
Policy
MiCA stablecoin provisions apply
Parts of the EU Markets in Crypto-Assets regime begin applying to asset-referenced and electronic-money tokens.
Custody
FTX reorganisation plan confirmed
The announced plan distinguishes allowed dollar claims from the return of the original coins.
Read the articleFTX estate: confirmed reorganisation plan, 7 October 2024
Enforcement
Bitfinex hacker sentenced
Ilya Lichtenstein receives five years for the money-laundering conspiracy.
Read the articleUS DOJ: Bitfinex laundering sentence, 14 November 2024
Policy
MiCA broader regime applies
The wider EU crypto-asset service-provider framework begins applying, subject to transitional rules.
DMM Bitcoin, 2024: a recruitment lure reached a custody workflow
The official attribution follows a fake coding test through session impersonation to a manipulated transaction request.
Read the articleFBI, DC3 and Japan NPA attribution, 23 December 2024
2025
Enforcement
BitMEX receives $100 million fine
A US court sentences the exchange after its Bank Secrecy Act guilty plea.
Read the articleDOJ: BitMEX fined for Bank Secrecy Act violation
Security
Bybit theft attributed
The FBI attributes a major exchange theft to North Korean TraderTraitor actors.
Read the articleFBI: Bybit theft attribution, 26 February 2025
Security
Bybit theft
A major digital-asset theft is attributed by the FBI to North Korea days later.
Read the articleFBI: Bybit theft attribution, 26 February 2025
Tornado Cash: the 2025 delisting belongs in the history too
The sanctions designation, its removal and cases against individuals are separate legal events.
Enforcement
Alex Mashinsky sentenced
The Celsius founder receives a 12-year US prison sentence after his guilty plea.
Ethereum
Pectra upgrade
Ethereum activates changes including account and validator features after testing and coordination.
Enforcement
Celsius founder sentenced
Alex Mashinsky receives 12 years after pleading guilty to fraud offences.
Enforcement
Do Kwon pleads guilty
Kwon pleads guilty in the US criminal case arising from representations around Terra.
Read the articleSEC: Terraform / Kwon civil fraud verdict and settlement, 13 June 2024
Enforcement
Do Kwon sentenced
A US court imposes a 15-year sentence.
Read the articleSEC: Terraform / Kwon civil fraud verdict and settlement, 13 June 2024
Enforcement
Do Kwon sentenced
Kwon receives 15 years after his August guilty plea in the US criminal case.
Read the articleUS DOJ: Do Kwon sentencing, 11 December 2025
2026
Policy
Gemini Earn case dismissal reported
The SEC and Gemini agree to dismiss the Earn case after full in-kind customer recovery through Genesis bankruptcy.
Read the articleSEC: Genesis and Gemini Earn complaint, 12 January 2023
SafeMoon: the liquidity claim, conviction and 2026 sentence
The legal record concerns access to supposedly locked liquidity and diversion of investor assets.
Read the articleUS DOJ sentence announcement, 10 February 2026
Fraud data
FBI reports rising cyber-enabled fraud
The FBI publishes loss data showing the continuing scale of investment and impersonation fraud.
OneCoin, 2026: asset recovery is not the same as repaying every victim
The compensation announcement describes recovered assets and a claims process, not a reversal of the original losses.
MASTR research
MASTR documents exchange-flow conflicts
MASTR publishes direct observations about incentives, representatives and exchange-linked flows on X.
MASTR research
MASTR expands the LAPTOP record
Saved workbooks reconcile launch inventory, claim wallets and completed sales rather than relying on screenshots.
MASTR research
LAPTOP onchain findings updated
MASTR's saved records reconcile launch inventory, claims and completed sales.
Read the articleMASTR: LAPTOP independent onchain reconstruction, 9 September 2026